The Willingness of Educators to Utilize Video Modeling as a Form of Supplemental Instruction on Verbal Expression of Emotion in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Ms. Molly R. Machemehl – submitted 04/28/2010 to Houston Baptist University

Abstract

The present research considers the predictors of the willingness of educators to use video modeling as a supplemental instruction technique on verbal expression of emotion for communication as well as social skills and awareness in children with autism spectrum disorder. Beyond educator involvement, educator burnout, and instructional technology training, this present research considers the implication of age, exposure to video modeling, and prior use of video modeling on an educator’s willingness to utilize video modeling as a form of supplemental instruction. The results indicated that a significant positive correlation exists among instructional technology training and an educator’s willingness to utilize video modeling for students with autism spectrum disorder as well as a significant negative correlation among educator involvement and an educator’s willingness to utilize video modeling. The finding of the correlation among instructional technology training and an educator’s willingness to utilize video modeling for students with autism spectrum disorder substantiates prior research while the negative correlation among educator involvement and an educator’s willingness does not. The variables associated with educator burnout, age, exposure to video modeling and prior use of video modeling did not result in significant findings. Further research on instructional technology training techniques may provide insight regarding those factors that affect an educator’s willingness to use video modeling and their attitude towards the use of video modeling as a form of supplemental instruction for students with autism spectrum disorder.

Research

A 2007 research study by McCoy and Hermansen (p. 186) indicated that from the years 1987 to 2006, at least 34 studies existed to validate the effectiveness of video modeling in educational and therapeutic environments. The study highlighted the effectiveness of peers and self as models (McCoy & Hermansen, 2007). The criteria for review by McCoy and Hermansen (2007, p. 186) consisted of research studies in peer-reviewed journals on at least one subject with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) who received video modeling. While the studies occurred in diverse settings and with diverse populations, the results supported the use of video modeling while encouraging further study to determine the effectiveness when combining video modeling with interventions (McCoy & Hermansen, 2007). Thus, while several of the studies independently involved fewer subjects, in aggregate, evidence existed, and still exists today, to promote the use of a reliable, caring, and responsible model of behavior in video. Earlier, Hitchcock, Dowrick, and Prater (2003, p. 38) acknowledged the effectiveness of the use of self as a model through a comprehensive review of 129 students of ages three to 18 from 18 school- based studies prior to 2001. Subsequently, as Bellini and Akullian (2007, p. 264) finalized a thorough meta-analysis of 23 single-subject research studies of students with ASD, evidence surfaced to attest to the effectiveness of video-modeling and video self-modeling as evidence based practice. Bellini and Akullian (2007, p. 269) included research from 1987 to 2005 with 73 children of ages three to twenty. Once compiled, the results indicated high intervention, maintenance, and generalization effects for functional skills and “social-communication functioning” in students with autism spectrum disorder (Bellini & Akullian, 2007, p. 270).

The proposed study determines the predictors of the willingness of educators to use video modeling as a supplemental instruction technique for verbal expression of emotion on communication as well as social skills and awareness in children with autism spectrum disorder. Children with autism spectrum disorder find impairments in social interaction as well as communication. As discussed by Hoffman (2009) in the “Clinical Features and Diagnosis of Autism and Other Pervasive Developmental Disorders,” children with autism spectrum disorder find difficulty in responding socially and emotionally as they interact with others. Their impairments in communication occur verbally as well as nonverbally and often accompany maladaptive social behaviors (Hoffman, 2009). The DSM-IV criterion includes parameters for defining the extent of social and communication impairment (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). The DSM-IV, Axis II, Code 299.00, refers to the term autistic disorder (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). Currently, educators use the term autism spectrum disorder when referring to autistic disorder to include the range of severity of the disorder on a spectrum of mild to severe with varying degrees in between, as well as to refer to the disorders, which resemble autistic disorder to include, but not to remain limited to, Asperger’s Disorder. For the purpose of the current proposed research, the researcher uses the term autism spectrum disorder when referring to autistic disorder. Video modeling refers to the use of video, which demonstrates a learned skill in an instructional, informative, or educational setting.

In 2001, Sherer, Pierce, Paredes, Kisacky, Ingersoll, and Schreibman conducted an extensive study finding video technology effective in teaching children with ASD. The researchers used various forms of video modeling to teach verbal communication and then obtained responses to conversational inquiry (Sherer et al., 2001). The participants of the study included five male children with pervasive developmental disorders (Sherer et al., 2001, p. 143). Four of the five children received a diagnosis of autistic disorder according to the DSM-IV (Sherer et al., 2001, p. 143). Each child viewed a series of questions answered by a child in conversation with another: eight questions answered by a developing child without a developmental disorder in conversation with another and eight questions answered by the subject in conversation with another (Sherer et al., 2001, p. 144-145). The results indicated that both the use of another as a video model and the use of the children themselves as a video model proved equally effective (Sherer et al., 2001). In addition, video modeling proved generally effective and often resulted in prompt changes (Sherer et al., 2001).

Nikopoulos and Keenan (2004) defined video modeling as the display of a behavior by an observer that resembles the behavior displayed by a video model. In the multiple baselines across subjects’ research of three autistic children of ages seven to nine who viewed another child on video initiating conversations and using a toy in play for its intended use, the results indicated that video modeling improves these skills in the observing child (Nikopoulos & Keenan, 2004, p. 93). Nikopoulos and Keenan (2004, p. 94) even returned to observe the children at one month and three month intervals. The follow-up results provided evidence of sustained improvement over time (Nikopoulos & Keenan, 2004). Green (2001) listed earlier studies of Haring, Kennedy, Adams and Pitts-Conway (1987); Charlop and Milstein (1989); and Buggey, Toombs, Gardener and Cervetti (1999), which assessed the use of video modeling with children diagnosed with ASD as effective in social skills development, specifically as it pertains to conversational speech. In the study of Haring et al. (1987, p. 89), three students diagnosed with what psychologists would now refer to as autistic disorder received video modeling on how to converse when making purchases. The students also received personal training as well. The results indicated that the ability to function independently and respond in a social setting with social responses increased with the use of video modeling (Haring et al., 1987, p. 94). While the research only consisted of a limited number of subjects, the researchers observed the subjects during the course of several weeks. The study of Charlop and Milstein (1989, p. 275) resembled that of Haring et al. (1987) but studied the results over a longer duration of 15 months. Charlop and Milstein (1989, p. 276) observed three boys from an after-school program with ASD between the ages of six and eight. Charlop and Milstein (1989) assessed the ability of the boys to engage in conversation subsequent to video modeling of people conversing about toys. Initial results indicated significant improvement in conversation subsequent to video modeling as well as sustained improvement after 15 months (Charlop & Milstein, 1989, p. 283). Buggey et al. (1999) further considered the effects of video self-modeling on children with ASD. The researchers studied children who viewed themselves interacting appropriately with adults in conversation. The children, ages seven to 12, all improved significantly in areas of social development, displaying appropriate behaviors, and communication skills (Buggey et al., 1999, p. 208). After two and a half to four weeks of intervention with video self-modeling, the children improved 27 to 54.7 percent, on average, in displaying appropriate social behaviors (Buggey et al., 1999, p. 210). In regards to appropriate communication, all the children improved after intervention (Buggey et al., 1999, p. 211). In 2001, Green conducted a review of these prior studies and presented an analysis on the topic of stimulus control. Most recently, Scattone (2007) noted the evidence found by Nikopoulos and Keenan (2004) and Buggey et al. (1999) in the substantial improvement in social skills training and communication of children with ASD through the use of video technology.

The diagnostic criterion for ASD defines verbal expression of emotion as both a communicative and social response (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). Because verbal expression of emotion affects both a verbal, communicative response as well as a social response, this present research views verbal expression of emotion from both perspectives. Verbal expression of emotion refers to the use of words to convey feelings, likes, dislikes, or wants. Constantino, Yang, Gray, Gross, Abbacchi, Smith, Kohn, and Kuhl (2007) discussed the association between language and social interaction. When developing social skills and communicating, children need to know how to express emotion using words. A question posed in the research of Constantino, et al. (2007) became how did a child with a developmental predisposition to avoid expressing emotion learn this skill? Certainly as human beings, children with autism spectrum disorder possess the same need for relationship and personal interaction as those without the disorder. Due to the fact that children with autism spectrum disorder lack skills on how to interact socially and express emotion, the question then became whether the child improved on expressing emotion with a non-human stimulus, such as video technology, accompanying human interactions. This present research does not refer to video modeling as its own treatment method but merely intends to supplement scientifically supported treatments. The use of the word supplemental indicates that video modeling accompanies a primary form of instruction to include, but not limited to, personal modeling and instruction by the educator; peer modeling; visual aids; auditory aids; and other educational tools. Recognizing the research supporting video modeling as an instructional method, this present research seeks to determine what factors predict an educator’s willingness to utilize the method.

As early as the 1960’s, researchers began to explore new methods for behavior analysis in the treatment of children with ASD (Green, 2001). As technology advanced, the researchers became introduced to stimulus control technology, including video modeling, as a possible treatment. While primarily reviewing prior studies, Green (2001) stated that analysts acknowledge the association of stimuli prior to or accompanying reinforced behaviors. Green (2001) further recognized the evidence that the stimuli enhanced the behaviors. Green (2001) considered the various types of stimulus control technology, including video modeling, and discussed their effects. In regards to the review of video modeling, she noted the method in which the children engaged in conversation immediately subsequent to viewing the video (Green, 2001, p. 81). Green (2001, p. 82) cited her findings on the effectiveness of video modeling for communication in children with ASD and presented the factors of its effectiveness. These factors consisted of the video format, the subjects used in the videos, and the initial skills of the children with ASD (Green, 2001).

Due to the fact that many children with ASD lack communicative and/or social skills, one must determine whether or not an outside stimulus would serve as effective in the acquisition of these skills. In the “Clinical Features and Diagnosis of Autism and Other Pervasive Developmental Disorders,” Hoffman (2009) compared autism to other disorders with similar features. She reviewed how social impairments may result in the impaired ability to display non- verbal characteristics, the inability to form relationships, or a deficit in social and emotional bonding. As it pertains to communication, Hoffman (2009) cited deficits in many children with ASD in both expressive and receptive language. Furthermore, as verified by Constantino et al. (2007), an association did exist between language and social awareness in regards to how children compartmentalize speech elements, which resemble the other. The DSM-IV cited the same characteristics as well (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). Concurrent with these changes, researchers made advances to supplement personal instruction with stimulus control technology.

A question often posed in the historical research became what type of instruction resulted in the greatest effect on children with ASD. Certainly the researchers in the autism community considered human interaction of primary importance. In a case study of a six-year old child with ASD, Geils and Knoetze (2008, p. 200) reported that playful and active human interaction accompanied with affection and brief commands improved the coordination of interacting with others and improved the communication and social interaction of the child. However, even in the context of a personal and interactive environment, the researchers acknowledged the use of supplemental resources to enhance instruction. Sherer et al. (2001, p. 141) cited the technological advances, which afforded researchers the opportunity to utilize video modeling specifically in regards to conversational and social skills. The research conducted by Sherer et al. (2001) began as an effort to determine whether or not using a “self” or outside model in video modeling resulted in a greater treatment effect. The conclusion of the study determined both as effective but additionally recognized an increased success rate as a possibility for visual learners (Sherer et al., 2001). Sherer et al. (2001) predicted a higher success rate specifically with ASD children due to evidence of highly acute visual skills and their propensity to learn through visualization.

As stated previously, Nikopoulos and Keenan (2004, p. 93) defined video modeling and researched the enhancement of social development and interactive play. Subsequently, Alberto, Cihak, and Gama, (2005) cited the work of Charlop and Milstein (1989) who used video modeling to provide ASD children with instruction on conversational skills. Additionally, Alberto et al. (2005, p. 337) conducted their own research and discovered the effectiveness and resourcefulness of video modeling and static pictures when teaching ASD children how to work in a community. In the study by West (2008, p. 238) on the effectiveness of verbal versus pictoral cues, West found visual cues more effective, which supported findings about the ability for ASD children to learn through visualization. Furthermore, West (2008, p. 229 & 230) found video modeling as a stimulating method to model independent learning and communication.

Acknowledging the research supporting the use of video modeling as a supplemental form of instruction for children with ASD, the present research sought to understand what factors predicted an educator’s willingness to utilize the technique. Innstrand, Espnes, and Mykletun, (2002) discussed the correlation existing among educator burnout and the increased stress level of educators of intellectually disabled persons. Burnout referred to the level of exhaustion and frustration (Innstrand et al., 2002). While not all, or even many, children with ASD may exhibit an intellectual disability, the researchers concluded that understanding burnout depended on understanding the level of care, diligence, and needs of the one to whom educators provide care. Detachment from students, lower self-efficacy, diminished work productivity, and exhaustion all existed as the effects of educator burnout (Innstrand et al., 2002). As a result, the present research sought to examine the extent of the relationship among the burnout of an educator for children with ASD and the educator’s willingness to use video modeling. In 2004, Innstrand, Espnes, and Mykletun studied the correlation of job stress, burnout, and job satisfaction. The researchers concurred with prior studies, which acknowledged the effects of burnout on diminished performance and accomplishment (Innstrand et al., 2004). The magnitude of the burnout resulted in a reduction in the productivity of 47 educators in Norway who worked with students who possessed intellectual disabilities and in the reduction in the willingness to implement a personal intervention to overcome burnout (Innstrand et al., 2004, p. 121). The 2007 study by Skaalvik and Skaalvik (p. 611) further acknowledged a strong correlation among teacher self-efficacy and teacher burnout for 244 teachers among 12 schools in Norway.

Skaalvik and Skaalvik (2007) discussed prior studies, which determined the effects of teacher self-efficacy on the utilization of teacher techniques and the direct effects on student attitudes and performance. Chiu and Tsai (2006, p. 521) recognized the limits of burnout within the workplace, noting the higher levels of burnout among 296 human-service personnel and 48 human-service supervisors in Taiwan. Those tested as possessing job burnout also exhibited lower levels of perceived job involvement. Job involvement consisted of personal identification with the job, the level of participation, and the extent of importance designated to the employee’s position (Chiu & Tsai, 2006). This current research examined the level of correlation among job involvement and the educator’s willingness to utilize video modeling as a form of supplemental instruction. Based on the conclusions drawn from these studies, this current research predicted a negative correlation among teacher burnout and the willingness of educators to utilize video modeling as well as a positive correlation among job involvement and willingness to utilize the teaching practice as a supplemental tool.

This present research also considers the level of correlation among the extent of instructional technology training and an educator’s willingness to incorporate video modeling as a supplemental form of instruction for children with ASD. Jans and Scherer (2006, p. 69) examined the factors considered in the use of assistive technology by individuals who facilitated instruction for diverse learners among 55 programs in 27 states for training programs in 2002 and then subsequent testing two years later. While the subjects utilized assistive technology in their personal training of skills used on the job, the results still proved beneficial to the research on the use of video modeling. The results of the research by Jans and Scherer (2006) on the use of assistive technology indicated that a primary contingency for the use of assistive technology came from the limited availability of instructional technology training for the personnel using the technology. In 2003, Chambers, Hardy, Smith and Sienty confirmed the 1995 results of Smith, Munday and Windham, which indicated that those educators who possessed personalities described as relational measured less likely to utilize instructional technology in the classroom than those who exhibited more analytical, creative, and intuitive personalities. Through the examination of 164 educators, Chambers et al. (2003, p. 187) recognized a need to consider personality types in the design of curricula to train educators in the use of instructional technology in the educational environment.

Beyond personal attitude, psychological inquiries, and instructional technology training, this present research considered the implication of age, exposure to video modeling, and prior use of video modeling on an educator’s willingness to utilize video modeling as a form of supplemental instruction. Limited research existed in regards to these variables to predict a direction for possible correlation. Yet the research previously cited implied the possibility that one of those factors indicated an educator’s willingness to utilize video modeling as a form of supplemental instruction. This becomes evident from the fact that the research previously cited discussed the advances made in video modeling techniques; the availability of resources; and the increase in the number of individuals both exposed to video modeling and with prior experience using video modeling as a form of supplemental instruction with children with ASD.

Hypotheses

1. Hypothesis 1 – Educator Exposure to Video Modeling

H1 – This study predicts that educator exposure to video modeling correlates to the extent to which educators who work with children with ASD possess a willingness to utilize video modeling as a form of supplemental instruction.

H0 – This study predicts that educator exposure to video modeling does not correlate to the extent to which educators who work with children with ASD possess a willingness to utilize video modeling as a form of supplemental instruction.

2. Hypothesis 2 – Prior Use of Video Modeling by Educators

H1 – This study predicts that prior use of video modeling by educators correlates to the extent to which educators who work with children with ASD possess a willingness to utilize video modeling as a form of supplemental instruction.

H0 – This study predicts that prior use of video modeling by educators does not correlate to the extent to which educators who work with children with ASD possess a willingness to utilize video modeling as a form of supplemental instruction.

3. Hypothesis 3 – Educator Involvement and Participation

H1 – This study predicts that educator involvement and participation relates positively to the extent to which educators who work with children with ASD possess a willingness to utilize video modeling as a form of supplemental instruction.

H0 – This study predicts that educator involvement and participation does not relate positively to the extent to which educators who work with children with ASD possess a willingness to utilize video modeling as a form of supplemental instruction.

4. Hypothesis 4 – Educator Burnout

H1 – This study predicts that educator burnout negatively correlates to the extent to which educators who work with children with ASD possess a willingness to utilize video modeling as a form of supplemental instruction.

H0 – This study predicts that educator burnout does not negatively correlate to the extent to which educators who work with children with ASD possess a willingness to utilize video modeling as a form of supplemental instruction.

5. Hypothesis 5 – Educator Age

H1 – This study predicts that the age of the educator correlates to the extent to which educators who work with children with ASD possess a willingness to utilize video modeling as a form of supplemental instruction.

H0 – This study predicts that the age of the educator does not correlate to the extent to which educators who work with children with ASD possess a willingness to utilize video modeling as a form of supplemental instruction.

6. Hypothesis 6 – Educator Instructional Technology Training

H1 – This study predicts that the extent of instructional technology training positively correlates to the extent to which educators who work with children with ASD possess a willingness to utilize video modeling as a form of supplemental instruction.

H0 – This study predicts that the extent of instructional technology training does not positively correlate to the extent to which educators who work with children with ASD possess a willingness to utilize video modeling as a form of supplemental instruction.

Methods

Participants

The research consisted primarily of a convenience sample of 66 educators of children with ASD in the Houston area among seven public schools, one private school for children with developmental disorders, and two universities. As it pertains to sampling males and females in the research, the research consisted of a ratio sample, representative of the locale. Currently in education, a significantly smaller percentage of males serve as educators to children with ASD than females. Using a database of all educators in a public school district that provided instruction to children with ASD in the region of testing, the researcher obtained the ratio of females to males. The educator also combined that ratio with the ratio of females to males at a private school in which all educators provided instruction to children with ASD. While the discussion section provides information as to the extent of generalization, the sample consisted of 51 (77.3%) females and 15 (22.7%) males ranging in age from 22 to 66, with a mean age of 40.67, which represented activity in the region of testing (see Appendix A). The participants included 43 (65.2%) teachers, 3 (4.5%) teacher’s assistants, 8 (12.1%) counselors and psychologists, and 12 (18.2%) administrators and other professionals who facilitated instruction for students with ASD (see Appendix A). Those in the “other” category consisted of speech therapists, art therapists, and those in education studies as specialists with prior experience instructing ASD students and with the expectation to facilitate instruction with ASD students in the future. The sample also included 48 (72.7%) Caucasian, 6 (9.1%) African American, 3 (4.5%) Asian, 6 (9.1%) Hispanic, and 3 (4.5%) Other Ethnicity (see Appendix A). The ethnicities in the “other” category consisted of American Indians and those who indicated a blend of ethnicities in their demographic reporting.

Measures

The participants of the study received informed consents requiring their signature (see Appendix B and Appendix C) and The Willingness of Educators to Utilize Video Modeling as a Form of Supplemental Instruction on Verbal Expression of Emotion in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder Questionnaire (TWEUVM; see Appendix D). Each participant-rated questionnaire included four sections. The first section consisted of a demographics section for sex, age, position, ethnicity, total professional development hours per year, and total instructional technology hours per year. The second section included seventeen questions designed by the researcher and rated on a Likert scale pertaining to exposure to video modeling, prior use of video modeling, and an educator’s willingness to use video modeling. Three questions pertained to exposure; two questions pertained to prior use; and five questions pertained to the willingness of an educator to use video modeling. Scales for all questions in this section ranged from 1, or “Strongly Disagree,” to 5, or “Strongly Agree.” The higher the participant’s score yielded a greater extent of exposure, prior use, or willingness. While the researcher did not include seven of the questions in section two for scoring, the questions proved useful in understanding the attitudes toward video modeling.

The final sections included published measures. The third section pertained to the Teacher Involvement and Participation Scale, version 2 (T.I.P.S. 2; Russell, Cooper, & Greenblatt, 1992). The T.I.P.S. 2 included twenty-two questions rated on a Likert scale in which the scale ranged from 1, or “Almost Never,” to 5, or “Almost Always” (Russell, Cooper, & Greenblatt, 1992, pg. 40). Scores resulted from the sum of all responses on this scale. Higher scores indicated a higher level of involvement and participation. Using Cronbach alpha, Spearman-Brown, and Guttman split-half, an alpha coefficient of .96 resulted for T.I.P.S. 2 (Lester & Bishop, 2000, p. 107). Evidence of content validity, discriminant validity, and construct validity resulted as well (Lester & Bishop, 2000, p. 107). The fourth section consisted of the Teacher Burnout Scale (TBS; Seidman & Zager, 1986-1987). The TBS included twenty- one questions rated on a Likert scale (Seidman & Zager, 1986-1987, p. 30). Of the twenty-one questions, the researcher used reverse scoring for thirteen of the twenty-one questions. Scores resulted from the sum of all responses on this scale. Higher scores indicated a higher level of burnout. The previous studies (Seidman & Zager, 1986-1987) reported internal consistency, or alpha coefficient, as .8125 on average for all four sections of the TBS. The previous studies also reported that test-retest reliability remained .73 on average for all four sections of the TBS (Seidman & Zager, 1986-1987). Using ANOVA, significance resulted for predictive validity (Lester & Bishop, 2000, p. 325). At the .05 level, Tukey HSD also proved statistically significant for this measure (Lester & Bishop, 2000, p. 325).

Procedure

The researcher recruited educators through various schools in the area. After applying with a school district in the North Houston suburbs and receiving approval to conduct research, the researcher began to recruit special education educators and counselors to participate in the study. The researcher learned of the educators through the district website and the output of the database the district maintains for special education professionals. The educators from this district included special education instructors, specialists for severe communicative disorders, licensed specialists in school psychology, teachers, and teachers’ assistants. In addition, the researcher also received approval to conduct research at a Houston area private school for children with developmental disorders. The entire faculty at the private school received a request to participate in the research. Furthermore, most of the faculty consisted of teachers for children with developmental disorders all of whom the directors of the school purported providing instruction to children with ASD.

The researcher also received approval to conduct research at two Houston area universities. The Committee for the Protection of Human Subjects at one of the universities as well as the university through whom the researcher conducted the research approved the research proposal. The researcher recruited subjects through contact with the professors of graduate and doctorate students in the fields of school psychology, special education services, and child development. The researcher contacted the professors of these students who potentially qualified as instructors of students with ASD. Upon receiving permission from the professors to attend the classes, recruitment began with the subjects. At the time of recruitment, the researcher screened each one to ensure that they qualified as an educator for children with ASD. The subjects recruited from the universities consisted of educators among three courses in the field of school psychology as well as specialists or educators with prior and future experiences to facilitate instruction for children with ASD. If the individual did not work in the educational setting at the time of testing, the researcher considered their immediate work environment as well as their projected field of employment.

Each participant at all sites received an informed consent and questionnaire to complete (see Appendix B, Appendix C, and Appendix D). To comply with the Committee for the Protection of Human Subjects protocol for data collection at various sites, two versions of the informed consent existed (see Appendix B and Appendix C). The researcher instructed each subject verbally and in writing on the procedures, the limited risk of the assignment, the confidentiality agreement, and the benefits to the research. The participants read and signed the voluntary informed consent form. Upon their consent, the participants separated the consent from the questionnaire. The researcher collected the informed consent forms to ensure anonymity. After receiving written instructions, the participants returned both the consent and questionnaire in separate, sealed envelopes. At that point, the subjects completed the remaining questionnaire and placed no identifying information on the form. In total, the questionnaire remained approximately fifteen minutes to complete. The researcher collected the questionnaires, calculated the scores, and compared them for all test variables.

Results

Analysis and Frequency Scores

The current research utilized Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS 16.0) to record and analyze results. All six hypotheses used significance levels of p ≤ .05. (Please refer to descriptive statistics in Appendix A).

Hypothesis 1

Hypothesis one predicted a correlation among exposure to video modeling and the extent to which educators who worked with children with ASD possessed a willingness to utilize video modeling as a form of supplemental instruction. A Pearson product moment correlation coefficient compared the Likert scored responses to video modeling exposure questions to the Likert scored responses of the questions pertaining to an educator’s willingness to utilize video modeling. The comparison of these two variables did not result in a significant relationship. Results of the correlation analysis failed to reject the null hypothesis, r = +.018, p = .885 (two tailed; See Table 1).

Hypothesis 2

Hypothesis two predicted a correlation among prior use of video modeling and the extent to which educators who worked with children with ASD possessed a willingness to utilize video modeling as a form of supplemental instruction. A Pearson product moment correlation coefficient compared the Likert scored responses of prior use of video modeling questions on the Likert scored responses of the questions pertaining to an educator’s willingness to utilize video modeling. The comparison of these two variables did not result in a significant relationship. Results of the correlation analysis failed to reject the null hypothesis, r = +.024, p = .847 (two tailed; See Table 2).

Hypothesis 3

Hypothesis three predicted a positive correlation among educator involvement and the extent to which educators who worked with children with ASD possessed a willingness to utilize video modeling as a form of supplemental instruction. A Pearson product moment correlation coefficient compared the Likert scored responses of the T.I.P.S. 2 (Russell, Cooper, & Greenblatt, 1992) scaled score to the Likert scored responses of the questions pertaining to an educator’s willingness to utilize video modeling. The comparison of these two variables did result in a significant relationship. However, the direction of the relationship occurred in the opposite direction than the predicted direction. Results of the correlation analysis rejected the null hypothesis, r = -.419, p < .001 (one tailed; See Table 3).

Hypothesis 4

Hypothesis four predicted a negative correlation among educator burnout and the extent to which educators who worked with children with ASD possessed a willingness to utilize video modeling as a form of supplemental instruction. A Pearson product moment correlation coefficient compared the Likert scored responses of the TBS (Seidman & Zager, 1986-1987) scaled score to the Likert scored responses of the questions pertaining to an educator’s willingness to utilize video modeling. The comparison of these two variables did not result in a significant relationship. Results of the correlation analysis failed to reject the null hypothesis, r = -.097, p = .220 (one tailed; See Table 4).

Hypothesis 5

Hypothesis five predicted a correlation among the age of the educator and the extent to which educators who worked with children with ASD possessed a willingness to utilize video modeling as a form of supplemental instruction. A Pearson product moment correlation coefficient compared the age of the individual to the Likert scored responses of the questions pertaining to an educator’s willingness to utilize video modeling. The comparison of these two variables did not result in a significant relationship. Results of the correlation analysis failed to reject the null hypothesis, r = +.131, p = .301 (two tailed; See Table 5).

Hypothesis 6

Hypothesis six predicted a positive correlation among instructional technology training of educators who facilitated instruction for students with ASD and the extent to which educators who worked with children with ASD possessed a willingness to utilize video modeling as a form of supplemental instruction for children with ASD. A Pearson product moment correlation coefficient compared the range selected by the educator for instructional technology hours to the Likert scored responses of the questions pertaining to an educator’s willingness to utilize video modeling for children with ASD. The comparison of these two variables did result in a significant relationship. Results of the correlation analysis rejected the null hypothesis, r = +.338, p = .003 (one tailed; See Table 6).

Post hoc Analyses

While not predicted, a t-test for independent samples was used to compare the means of males and females in regards to their willingness to utilize video modeling as a form of supplemental instruction for children with ASD. In the comparison of males and females as it pertains to their willingness to utilize video modeling, a significant relationship did result, t = 2.028, p = .047 (See Table 7). Furthermore, a significant relationship resulted in the comparison of males and females as it pertains to positions chosen for educators, t = 2.021, p = .048 (See Table 11).

Discussion

The first hypothesis analyzed whether a significant correlation existed among exposure to the use of video modeling by educators as a form of supplemental instruction with students with ASD and the willingness of educators to utilize video modeling as a form of supplemental instruction. No significant correlation existed among the two variables as a result of the analysis. No known research existed as to what extent, if at all, the exposure of educators to video modeling would correlate to their willingness to use video modeling as a form of supplemental instruction. The second hypothesis analyzed whether a significant correlation existed among prior use of video modeling by educators as a form of supplemental instruction with students with ASD and the willingness of educators to utilize video modeling as a form of supplemental instruction. No significant correlation existed among the two variables as a result of the analysis. No known research existed as to what extent, if at all, the prior use of video modeling by educators would correlate to their willingness to use video modeling as a form of supplemental instruction. The third hypothesis analyzed whether a significant positive correlation existed among the level of involvement of educators and the willingness of educators to utilize video modeling as a form of supplemental instruction. A significant negative correlation did result between the two variables as a result of the analysis, which indicated that the greater extent of an educator’s perceived job involvement predicts a lower level of willingness to use video modeling. The direction of the correlation occurred in the opposite direction to the predicted direction. While still resulting in significance, the negative correlation contradicted prior research of Chiu and Tsai (2006), in which higher job involvement resulted in lower burnout, a higher level of participation, and greater attention and importance placed on tasks of the job. Cultural differences may provide a plausible explanation for the contradiction as Chiu and Tsai (2006) conducted research on an Eastern cultural demographic with known differences in work ethic from Western culture. The fourth hypothesis analyzed whether a significant negative correlation existed among the level of burnout of educators and the willingness of educators to utilize video modeling as a form of supplemental instruction. No significant correlation existed among the two variables as a result of the analysis, which indicated that the level of burnout of an educator may not predict whether or not the educator possesses a willingness to use video modeling as a supplemental instruction technique. The result also contradicted prior research of Chiu and Tsai (2006), Innstrand et al. (2002), Innstrand et al. (2004), and Skaalvik and Skaalvik (2007) in which those with lower levels of burnout possessed a greater level of willingness and self-efficacy to utilize instructional techniques for improvement in job performance. As with job involvement, cultural differences may provide a plausible explanation for the contradictions.

The fifth hypothesis analyzed whether a significant correlation existed among the age of educators and the willingness of educators to utilize video modeling as a form of supplemental instruction. No significant correlation existed among the two variables as a result of the analysis. No known research existed to measure to what extent, if at all, the age of educators would correlate to their willingness to use video modeling as a form of supplemental instruction. However, the average age (27.6) of human service employees in the research by Chiu & Tsai (2006) did remain lower than the average age of the current research. However, the average age of the research by Innstrand et al. (2002) and (2004) as well as that of Skaalvik and Skaalvik (2007) remained consistent with that of the present research. The sixth hypothesis analyzed whether a significant positive correlation existed among the extent of instructional technology training of the educators and the willingness of educators to utilize video modeling as a form of supplemental instruction. A significant positive correlation did result between the two variables as predicted. The result supported prior research of Jans and Scherer (2006) who noted the greater likelihood of personnel to utilize instructional technology upon receiving instructional technology training.

While thorough research occurred to consider the predictors of an educator’s willingness to use video modeling as a supplemental instruction technique for children with ASD, some limitations arose during testing. The sampling method consisted primarily of a convenience sample. The representative sampling, which occurred for males and females, consisted of generalizability only for the locale and area of testing, a matter of external validity. To generalize to a broader area requires more extensive testing, as recommended. Furthermore, the researcher included seventeen self-written questions, which measured the variables of exposure to video modeling, prior use of video modeling, and the willingness of educators to utilize video modeling as a form of supplemental instruction. Thus, limited testing existed to measure the reliability and validity of the questions. Most educators expressed some level of willingness to consider using video modeling, which resulted in kurtosis. As recommended, further testing remains needed to refine the questions and obtain a reliable and valid measure. Examining attitudes toward the use of video modeling as an instructional technique for children with ASD and by comparing these attitudes to the extent the educator uses technology with students may provide useful information to researchers advocating the use of video modeling for children with ASD. In addition to examining attitudes, examining an educator’s likelihood to utilize video modeling may prove beneficial as well.

This current research will benefit educators of children with diverse learners. The implications of this current research include determining predictors of educators’ willingness or lack of willingness to utilize beneficial teaching techniques as well as determining the strength or weakness of the relationship. The results of this research may affect the consideration of other forms of supplemental instruction utilizing instructional technology. Educators and those who train them could utilize the information to promote the use of personalized training techniques to deter against educators feeling unequipped, discouraged, lacking information, or lacking experiences to employ beneficial teaching practices for diverse learners. Thus, examining psychological as well technological and exposure factors assists in targeting the extent of the relationship in regard to an educator’s likelihood of considering various forms of supplemental instruction. Certainly, more testing and refining could exist for the unmeasured questions as well as more extensive research could exist on the specific attitudes of educators, which affect whether or not an educator utilizes video modeling for children with ASD and to what extent. Another consideration includes examining the factors which affect the preparedness and comfort level of an educator to utilize technology with students with ASD.

The research on video modeling initiated from 1980 to the present supports video modeling as a form of supplemental instruction for children with ASD. While all of the 16 states in the South Region of the United States incorporated technology guidelines for students and teachers into state curricula requirements as of 2000 (SREB-Southern Regional Education Board, 1999-2010), not all educators may possess a willingness to utilize video modeling with ASD children. The variables of exposure to video modeling, prior use of video modeling, the extent of instructional technology training, age, educator involvement, and educator burnout provide insight into the predictors affecting the willingness of educators to consider the supplemental technique. While additional variables exist for further consideration, the aforementioned research provides insight into predictors associated with the level of an educator’s willingness to utilize the technique.

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